Abstract
Aboriginal stereotypes have been in existence for many years, generally depicting negative aspects of the Aboriginal community. Due to this reasoning, although indigenous Australians currently form two percent of the population, Aboriginals are considered as a minority group in Australia (Beilharz & Hogan, 2006). The formation of Aboriginal stereotypes has been widely researched, overall results suggesting these are cognitively developed. Focusing on the cognitive theory of stereotyping, this essay outlines how stereotypes surrounding the Aboriginal community were formed, as well as determining how such stereotypes have been maintained in order for them to be in existence in society today. This paper will also discuss variables which may be involved in the preservation of Aboriginal stereotypes, and evaluate methods which may be effective in producing a positive change in the stereotypes associated with indigenous Australians.
Essay
Indigenous Australians inhabited the country of Australia well before the arrival and settlement of white man. Although aboriginals currently make up around two percent of the population, in society today the aboriginal community is considered a minority group in Australia (Beilharz & Hogan, 2006). There are many stereotypes surrounding aspects of the lives and intelligence of Aboriginals, though generally these stereotypes surround assumption that indigenous Australians possess lower levels of intelligence than that of their non-indigenous counterparts (O’Driscoll & Feather, 1985). With most cognitive generalisations being negative in nature, stereotypes produce a pervasive and destructive problem (Pederson & Walker, 1997).
Cognitive theory of stereotyping suggests that there are many variables involved in the formation of stereotypes (Brown, 1995). The first process that may have lead to such stereotypes is the perceptual act of categorisation (Worchel, Cooper, Goethals & Olson, 2000). From the arrival of the First Fleet in 1788, aboriginals have continually been seen as different from their European descendants. Heuristically categorising or placing similar objects or stimuli together, produces assumptions, which form schemas regarding groups such as the Aboriginal community (Worchel et al, 2000). Tajfel (1978) furthered this hypothesis by postulating two cognitive consequences of categorisation. Firstly, if stimuli are put into groups the difference between the groups is enhanced. Secondly, individuals perceive members of their group as different from themselves; however, individuals perceive members of other groups as immeasurably similar to other members of their group.
While the in-group / out-group bias cognitive shortcut allows individuals to minimise efforts in coping in a complex world, this oversimplification can be inaccurate and generally has a high degree of error (Pettigrew & Tropp, 2006). Without the use of accurate knowledge of the aboriginal community, assumptions and generalisations can be formed based on inaccurate information. This was seen up until the 1970’s before which time officials believed Aboriginals were primitive beings who were incapable of adequately providing for their offspring, forcibly moving children from their parents and life as they knew it (Beilharz et al, 2006).
Although not to the same degree, aboriginal stereotypes such as these are still in existence in society today. Larsen (1978, cited in Pedersen et al, 1997) developed a scale to measure prejudice towards Aborigines among university students. Results showed that nearly half of the participants were found to posses either negative or ambivalent feelings toward Aborigines. Administering a revised form of the scale, Walker (1994, cited in Pedersen, 1997) found similar results. One explanation for this may be that stereotypes can be learnt from parents and other individuals more experienced in the world (Worchel et al, 2000). These sociocultural forms of learning exist through people extracting perceived regularities in the traits of people they encounter, and applying this knowledge to draw inferences about either unobserved or perceived features of other individuals (Smith & DeCoster, 1998).
Illusionary correlation is also a way in which stereotypes can be formed. For example, seeing an intoxicated aboriginal may found an individual’s belief that all Aboriginals are dependant on alcohol. As the individual has based this on direct observation they may determine that this assumption is correct and not check for its accuracy (Worchel et al, 2000). This may then develop the schema based on skewed knowledge or input that may provide the individual with heuristically determined information when seeing or interacting with other members of the Aboriginal community (Baumeister & Bushman, 2008).
Finding others with similar opinions as one’s own has also been attributed to the formation of stereotypes, as suggested in Bandura’s theory of social learning (Mak & Barker, 2004). Stereotype consensus is a powerful way in which individuals determine their opinions of others (Dovidio & Gaertner, 2000). However this may lead an individual to be interdependent upon another person and simply adhere to their opinion, furthering the stereotype. These variables are depicted in Figure 1.
Figure 1. The Variables Involved in Building Aboriginal Stereotypes.
There are a number of ways in which negative stereotypes towards aboriginals may be maintained. Stereotypes would be much more accurate if they changed when perceivers encountered disconfirming instances; however as humans are biased information processors, this does not usually occur (Worchel et al, 2000). Similarly, stereotypes bias information in which the individual attends to (Baumeister et al, 2008). Selective attention produces individual expectancies, which are strongly correlated with the maintenance of Aboriginal stereotypes (Islam & Jahjah, 2001). For example, Kunda & Oleson (1997) conducted a study in which participants prior stereotypes were measured. Participants were then exposed to an environmental situation in evidence disconfirmed their stereotype. Overall results showed participants perceived the evidence in order to coincide with their existing schema, concluding their stereotype was accurate. Therefore encountering information which opposes a stereotype may not necessarily change the typecast individuals have formed (Kunda et al, 1997).
Research into the area of selective perception has shown that selective perception unconsciously allows individuals to selectively determine the stimuli in which they attend to. For example, testing the perceptive effects of alcohol, Hammersley, Finnigan & Millar (1992) administered participants with either an alcoholic solution and told participants the drink had no alcoholic content, or a placebo solution which had no alcoholic content. Results showed that participants who believed they were ingesting alcohol displayed stronger signs of intoxication than participants who thought they were not receiving alcohol. Aboriginal stereotypes may also be maintained through the use of selective perception. Individuals forming an aboriginal stereotype and perceptually believing the stereotype is based on accurate information, may produce a self-fulfilling prophecy which inherently confirms a biased stereotype.
The maintenance strategy of selective memory furthers the use of inaccurate information. An individual attending and remembering selected information in their stereotype of Aboriginal people are more likely to remember Aboriginal behaviour if it is fitting with their stereotype than behaviours which oppose it (Kunda et al, 1997). Synder and Uranowitz (1978) suggest that people use stereotypes as retrieval cues, and search their memory in a biased manner.
Aboriginal stereotypes exist in many aspects - though are all stereotypes negative? Centrelink has a different payment for Indigenous individuals than it does for non-indigenous Australians. Is this recognising the difference in the aboriginal heritage or aiding people in determining that aboriginals are different and therefore fit a particular stereotype? Recognising cultural differences and facilitating intercultural learning may be a positive step in lessening these psychosocial barriers (Mak et al, 2004).
Social learning programs which emphasise knowledge and social acceptance have been shown to reduce stereotypes (Mak et al, 2004; Ward & Masgoret, 2006). However, such programs have also been shown to have little success. Assessing changes in attitudes, Hill and Augoustinos (2001) measured participant’s stereotypes of Aboriginals immediately after and three months following the program. Results indicated that the program had pronounced positive effects immediately after the program compared to a baseline established before the program. However these positive effects diminished and were not evident three months after participants completed the program. While this outcome depicts the view that social learning programs are not effective ways of reducing stereotypes, such programs do emphasise that utilising an integrative model of intervention which is crucial in minimising stereotypes (Ward et al, 2006).
Although there is conflicting research regarding the effectiveness of social learning programs, it is widely accepted that attitude change usually focuses on reorganising knowledge, information, and belief structures of out-group members (Snyder & Miene, 1994, cited in Islam & Jahjah, 2001). While intervention programs may not be effective in reducing prejudice and stereotypes in all circumstances, it does encompass all aspects associated with positive attitude change as well as utilising the best known way if reducing stereotypes – knowledge (Hill et al, 2001). Through utilising education, whether through social intervention programs or self facilitated learning, individuals may be able to recognise the positive qualities the Aboriginal community encompasses, and embrace indigenous individuals into community settings.
In conclusion, Aboriginal people have been the victims of negative stereotyping for hundreds of years. Through the use of research conducted in the area of social psychology, it has been determined that that people extract regularities in the traits of the people they encounter applying this knowledge in order to draw inferences about perceived features of Aboriginals. The Cognitive Theory of Stereotyping suggests these typecasts may have been developed through different forms of social learning and are generally maintained through individuals selectively determining the stimuli in which they attend to. Humans will always employ the use of stereotypes, but the effects of these can be minimized through acquiring factual knowledge about the Aboriginal community. Education reduces presumptions and ultimately judgments of Aboriginals which is currently the most effective way to reduce stereotypes.
Figure 1. The Variables Involved in Building Aboriginal Stereotypes.
There are a number of ways in which negative stereotypes towards aboriginals may be maintained. Stereotypes would be much more accurate if they changed when perceivers encountered disconfirming instances; however as humans are biased information processors, this does not usually occur (Worchel et al, 2000). Similarly, stereotypes bias information in which the individual attends to (Baumeister et al, 2008). Selective attention produces individual expectancies, which are strongly correlated with the maintenance of Aboriginal stereotypes (Islam & Jahjah, 2001). For example, Kunda & Oleson (1997) conducted a study in which participants prior stereotypes were measured. Participants were then exposed to an environmental situation in evidence disconfirmed their stereotype. Overall results showed participants perceived the evidence in order to coincide with their existing schema, concluding their stereotype was accurate. Therefore encountering information which opposes a stereotype may not necessarily change the typecast individuals have formed (Kunda et al, 1997).
Research into the area of selective perception has shown that selective perception unconsciously allows individuals to selectively determine the stimuli in which they attend to. For example, testing the perceptive effects of alcohol, Hammersley, Finnigan & Millar (1992) administered participants with either an alcoholic solution and told participants the drink had no alcoholic content, or a placebo solution which had no alcoholic content. Results showed that participants who believed they were ingesting alcohol displayed stronger signs of intoxication than participants who thought they were not receiving alcohol. Aboriginal stereotypes may also be maintained through the use of selective perception. Individuals forming an aboriginal stereotype and perceptually believing the stereotype is based on accurate information, may produce a self-fulfilling prophecy which inherently confirms a biased stereotype.
The maintenance strategy of selective memory furthers the use of inaccurate information. An individual attending and remembering selected information in their stereotype of Aboriginal people are more likely to remember Aboriginal behaviour if it is fitting with their stereotype than behaviours which oppose it (Kunda et al, 1997). Synder and Uranowitz (1978) suggest that people use stereotypes as retrieval cues, and search their memory in a biased manner.
Aboriginal stereotypes exist in many aspects - though are all stereotypes negative? Centrelink has a different payment for Indigenous individuals than it does for non-indigenous Australians. Is this recognising the difference in the aboriginal heritage or aiding people in determining that aboriginals are different and therefore fit a particular stereotype? Recognising cultural differences and facilitating intercultural learning may be a positive step in lessening these psychosocial barriers (Mak et al, 2004).
Social learning programs which emphasise knowledge and social acceptance have been shown to reduce stereotypes (Mak et al, 2004; Ward & Masgoret, 2006). However, such programs have also been shown to have little success. Assessing changes in attitudes, Hill and Augoustinos (2001) measured participant’s stereotypes of Aboriginals immediately after and three months following the program. Results indicated that the program had pronounced positive effects immediately after the program compared to a baseline established before the program. However these positive effects diminished and were not evident three months after participants completed the program. While this outcome depicts the view that social learning programs are not effective ways of reducing stereotypes, such programs do emphasise that utilising an integrative model of intervention which is crucial in minimising stereotypes (Ward et al, 2006).
Although there is conflicting research regarding the effectiveness of social learning programs, it is widely accepted that attitude change usually focuses on reorganising knowledge, information, and belief structures of out-group members (Snyder & Miene, 1994, cited in Islam & Jahjah, 2001). While intervention programs may not be effective in reducing prejudice and stereotypes in all circumstances, it does encompass all aspects associated with positive attitude change as well as utilising the best known way if reducing stereotypes – knowledge (Hill et al, 2001). Through utilising education, whether through social intervention programs or self facilitated learning, individuals may be able to recognise the positive qualities the Aboriginal community encompasses, and embrace indigenous individuals into community settings.
In conclusion, Aboriginal people have been the victims of negative stereotyping for hundreds of years. Through the use of research conducted in the area of social psychology, it has been determined that that people extract regularities in the traits of the people they encounter applying this knowledge in order to draw inferences about perceived features of Aboriginals. The Cognitive Theory of Stereotyping suggests these typecasts may have been developed through different forms of social learning and are generally maintained through individuals selectively determining the stimuli in which they attend to. Humans will always employ the use of stereotypes, but the effects of these can be minimized through acquiring factual knowledge about the Aboriginal community. Education reduces presumptions and ultimately judgments of Aboriginals which is currently the most effective way to reduce stereotypes.
References
Baumeister, R. F., & Bushman, B. J. (2008). Social Psychology & Human Nature. Thomson Learning Inc, Belmont USA, 146-177.
Beilharz, P., & Hogan, T. (2006). Sociology: Place, Time & Division. Oxford University Press, Melbourne Australia, 361-366.
Brown, R. (1995). Prejudice: Its social psychology. Blackwell Publishing, Cambridge, 5-116.
Dovidio, J. F., & Gaertner, S. L. (2000). Aversive racism and selection decisions: 1989 and 1999. Psychological Science, 11 (4), 315-319.
Hammersley, R., Finnigan, F., & Millar, K. (1992). Alcohol placebos: You can only fool some of the people all of the time. British Journal of Addiction, 87, 1477-1480.
Hill, M. E., & Augoustinos, M. (2001). Stereotype change and prejudice reduction: Short and long-term evaluation of a cross-cultural awareness program. Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology, 11, 243- 262.
Islam, M. R., & Jahjah, M. (2001). Predictors of young Australians attitudes towards Aboriginals, Asians and Arabs. Social Behaviour and Personality, 29 (6), 569-580.
Kunda, Z., & Oleson, K. C. (1997). When exceptions prove the rule: How extremity of deviance determines the impact of deviant examples on stereotypes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72 (5), 965- 979.
Mak, A., & Barker. M. (2004). A social cognitive learning program for facilitating intercultural relations. In Y. Kashima et al (Eds). Progress in social psychology, 4, Seoul: Kyoyook- Kwahak-Sa, 157-179.
O’Driscoll, M. P., & Feather, N. T. (1985). Positive prejudice in ethnic attitudes: Australian data. International Journal of Psychology, 20, 95-107.
Pederson, A., & Walker, I. (1997). Prejudice against Australian Aborigines: old fashioned and modern forms. European Journal of Social Psychology, 27, 561-587.
Pettigrew, T. F., & Tropp, L. R. (2006). Interpersonal relations and group processes: A meta-analytic test of intergroup contact theory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90 (5), 751-783.
Smith, E. R., & Decoster, J. (1998). Knowledge acquisition, accessibility, and use in person in person perception and stereotyping: Simulation with a recurrent connectionist network. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74 (1), 21-35.
Snyder, M., & Uranowitz, S. W. (1978). Reconstructing the past: Some cognitive consequences of person perception. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36 (9), 941-950.
Tajfel, H. (1978). Differentiation between social groups: studies in the social psychology of intergroup relations. Academic Press, London, 102-276.
Ward, C., & Masgoret, A. (2006). An integrative model of attitudes toward immigrants. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 30, 671-682.
Worchel, S., Cooper, J., Goethals, G. G., & Olson, J. M. (2000). Social Psychology. Wadsworth Publishing, Belmont, 192-223.
Appendix A
Self-Evaluation of Blog
Written Expression
Final Word Count = 1435
Readability Analysis:
Flesch-Kincaid Grade Level = 12.6
I have included an abstract to aid in the readability, and also included an introduction, body and conclusion, a self-evaluation and Blog postings list in the appendix, as well as a reference list. Citations used in the body of the essay are references appropriately in the reference list which is consistent with the APA style of formatting. I devised a concept map which I included in the body of the article (see Figure 1) which depicts my understanding of the psychosocial variables involved in the formation of Aboriginal stereotypes. Results of my readability analysis indicate that the level of my academic writing style could be improved, which I will work on for Blog 2.
Theory and Research
As my reference list will show I was able to effectively search and locate articles which supported the voice I displayed throughout my Blog topic of Aboriginal Stereotypes. I sourced a moderate number of books and journal articles which was peer reviewed and pertinent to my topic. Research cited in my Blog ranged in age from 1978 to 2008. Although studies and literature published near thirty years ago has aged, I believe that it was important to go back to the original source of particular concepts, building on and comparing these to more recent literature. While there were numerous psychological theories which could have been used for my Blog, I felt it would be easier to understand how Aboriginal stereotypes formed as well as be more informative if I concentrated on one particular theory.
Online Engagement
I believe my Blog is inviting for others through my use of visual information and friendly tone, and generally easy for others to follow and understand. In my Blog I have included a profile of myself summarising my interests, hobbies and goals for the future. I have also on numerous occasions viewed the profile of my fellow classmates in order to better understand their interests, as well as get a better idea of the issues which may be of interest. I have made a number of comments on other people’s Blog’s, including participating in research conducted by one of my classmates in their survey (These are listed with the appropriate links in appendix B). Although not as early as I would have liked, I created my Blog relatively early in the semester and have since made weekly postings. Since its inception my Blog has included discussion surrounding lecture topics, as well as adding useful sections in an attempt to enhance the learning of others and myself. I also began a discussion surrounding cultural barriers which received two comments which were responses to questions I had asked. I believe this demonstrates my ability to facilitate a discussion based on the knowledge of a number of individuals. In light of this I believe that I do have a unique voice that could connect and share with others more frequently, which is to be my goal for my second Blog.
Appendix B
Postings
List of my postings:
‘Mission Completed’
5th August 2007
‘The Complexity of the Human Brain’
13th August 2007
‘Cultural Barriers’
16th August 2007
‘Blog 1 – We’re on the Downhill Run!’
2nd September 2007
List of postings to other people:
Kara’s Blog:
26th August 2007
Jules’s Blog:
29th August 2007
Beck’s Blog:
31st August 2007
List of postings in reply to my posts:
13th August 2007
16th August 2007
16th August 2007
1 comment:
Official Essay Feedback
Overall
A fantastic essay which was limited only by the formatting issues. It is my feeling however that this can be largely overlooked (to a degree) considering the professional quality of your research. A truly outstanding piece of work which was a pleasure to read. Congratulations.
Theory
Outstanding theory. You have found a host of interesting theories (Banduras Social Learning etc) which expand upon the understanding of humans use of heuristics and other basic psychologic processes. Further to this, you have linked them very well together with research and specific examples of stereotypes. The only flaw was not mentioning some of the smaller theorhetical constructs explicitly (you describe them but dont name them) such as confirmation bias, homogeneity outgroup bias. This is not a major issue however due to the high standard of theories you have examined.
Research
A standard of excellence in research is evident in your essay. Again it must be said that you have gone beyond the standard scope of students to find studies that not only show applied examples of theoretical principles (or relate to real life examples you provide) but also deal with the subject matter critically.
Written Expression
You are a very talented writer who is capable of seamlessly integrate theory, research and examples together. My major criticism is the formatting of your blog which diminished both my aesthetic appreciation and ability to effectively read your essay. I can only surmise that this may have been because you imported the text from MS Word, which removed all your paragraphing/formatting. Given the online nature of this assessment being able to read it is a major concern. Fortunately your excellent writing style and consistency to APA have not overly diminished your mark. Furthermore your concept map is easily accessible and clearly demonstrates your clear conceptual understanding of the framework.
Online Engagement
Like the standard of your essay overall it is evident that you went the extra mile for your online engagement. You provided insightful blog posts for others, attracted a host of comments and made comments on your colleagues pages. To boast your marks that little bit more I would suggest posting a draft essay or a plan. Alternatively sharing a few resources or links to things you have found interesting (or sharing them on others blogs) would demonstrate outstanding engagement with the online community.
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